In the east, the Ottoman Turks took Baghdad from the Persians in , gaining control of Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf. France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Habsburg rule, became strong allies.
After further advances by the Turks in , the Habsburg ruler Ferdinand officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in In , after the first Ajuran-Portuguese war the Ottoman Empire would later absorb the weakened Adal Sultanate into its domain. This expansion furthered Ottoman rule in Somalia and the Horn of Africa. This also increased its influence in the Indian Ocean to compete with the Portuguese with its close ally the Ajuran Empire.
The success of its political and military establishment has been compared to the Roman Empire, by the likes of Italian scholar Francesco Sansovino and the French political philosopher Jean Bodin. The stagnation and decline, Stephen Lee argues, was relentless after , interrupted by a few short revivals or reform and recovery. The next 13 sultans from to , with two exceptions, were lackadaisical or incompetent rulers, says Lee.
A direct result was the strengthening of provincial elites who increasingly ignored Constantinople. Secondly the military strength of European enemies grew stronger and stronger, while the Ottoman armies and arms scarcely improved. The effective military and bureaucratic structures of the previous century came under strain during a protracted period of misrule by weak Sultans.
The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in initiated a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars in the Indian Ocean throughout the 16th century.
The Ajuran Empire allied with the Ottomans defied the Portuguese economic monopoly in the Indian Ocean by employing a new coinage which followed the Ottoman pattern, thus proclaiming an attitude of economic independence in regard to the Portuguese. The Crimean Khanate continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of slave raids , [48] and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.
It was a startling, if mostly symbolic, [50] blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility, an image which the victory of the Knights of Malta against the Ottoman invaders in the Siege of Malta had recently set in motion eroding. By contrast, the Habsburg frontier had settled somewhat, a stalemate caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defences. This contributed to problems of indiscipline and outright rebelliousness within the corps, which was never fully solved.
However, its campaigns became increasingly inconclusive, even against weaker states with much smaller forces such as Poland or Austria. During his brief majority reign, Murad IV — reasserted central authority and recaptured Yerevan and Baghdad from the Safavids. By September 18, , the occupying armies were expelled, and the Ankara-based Turkish regime, which had declared itself the legitimate government of the country on April 23, , started to formalize the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system.
On November 1, , the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, ending years of monarchical Ottoman rule. The Lausanne treaty stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey in which 1. On March 3, , the Ottoman Caliphate was officially abolished and the last Caliph was exiled. Turkish War of Independence: Clockwise from top left: Delegation gathered in Sivas Congress to determine the objectives of the National Struggle; Turkish people carrying ammunition to the front; Kuva-yi Milliye infantry; Turkish horse cavalry in chase; the Turkish army entering Izmir; last troops gathered in Ankara Ulus Square leaving for the front.
In , the Ottoman government decided to issue the Tehcir Law, which started the mass deportation of ethnic Armenians, particularly from the provinces close to the Ottoman-Russian front. This resulted in what became known as the Armenian Genocide. The starting date is conventionally considered April 24, , the day that Ottoman authorities rounded up, arrested, and deported to Armenian intellectuals and community leaders from Constantinople to Ankara, the majority of whom were eventually murdered.
The genocide was carried out during and after World War I and implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labor, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly, and the infirm on death marches to the Syrian desert.
Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and massacre. Other indigenous and Christian ethnic groups such as the Assyrians and the Ottoman Greeks were similarly targeted for extermination by the Ottoman government in the Assyrian genocide and the Greek genocide, and their treatment is considered by some historians to be part of the same genocidal policy.
Most Armenian diaspora communities around the world came into being as a direct result of the genocide. Raphael Lemkin was explicitly moved by the Armenian annihilation to define systematic and premeditated exterminations within legal parameters and coin the word genocide in The Armenian Genocide is acknowledged as one of the first modern genocides, with scholars noting the organized manner in which the Armenians were eliminated.
This is the second most-studied case of genocide after the Holocaust. Turkey, the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, denies the word genocide as an accurate term for the mass killings of Armenians that began under Ottoman rule in Recently, it has been faced with repeated calls to join the 29 countries that have officially recognized the mass killings as genocide, along with most genocide scholars and historians. By , Ottoman authorities had already begun a propaganda drive to present Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire as a threat to security.
An Ottoman naval officer in the War Office described the planning:. On the night of April , , known as Red Sunday, the Ottoman government rounded up and imprisoned an estimated Armenian intellectuals and community leaders of the Ottoman capital, Constantinople, and later those in other centers, who were moved to two holding centers near Ankara.
This date coincided with Allied troop landings at Gallipoli after unsuccessful Allied naval attempts to break through the Dardanelles to Constantinople in February and March With the implementation of Tehcir Law, the confiscation of Armenian property and the slaughter of Armenians that ensued upon its enactment outraged much of the western world. The Armenians were marched out to the Syrian town of Deir ez-Zor and the surrounding desert. There is no evidence that the Ottoman government provided the extensive facilities and supplies that would have been necessary to sustain the life of hundreds of thousands of Armenian deportees during their forced march to the Syrian desert or after.
It is a plan to exterminate the whole Armenian people. Deportees were displayed naked in Damascus and sold as sex slaves in some areas, including Mosul according to the report of the German consul there. This constituted an important source of income for accompanying soldiers and resulted in the deaths of girls and women left behind. Eitan Belkind was a Nili member who infiltrated the Ottoman army as an official, assigned to the headquarters of Kemal Pasha.
He claims to have witnessed the burning of 5, Armenians. While there is no consensus as to how many Armenians lost their lives during the Armenian Genocide, there is general agreement among western historians that more than , Armenians died between and Other estimates vary between , and 1,, Scenes like this were common all over the Armenian provinces in the spring and summer months of Death in its several forms—massacre, starvation, exhaustion—destroyed the larger part of the refugees.
The Turkish policy was that of extermination under the guise of deportation. As a response to continued denial by the Turkish state, many activists from Armenian Diaspora communities have pushed for formal recognition of the Armenian genocide from various governments around the world. Twenty-nine countries and forty-three U. On March 4, , a U. The Armenian Genocide is widely corroborated by international genocide scholars. Following the breakup of the Russian Empire in the aftermath of World War I, Armenia was briefly an independent republic from to As a result of the Armenian Genocide, approximately half a million Armenians were forced to flee to different parts of the world and created new Armenian communities far from their native land.
Through marriage and procreation, the number of Armenians in the diaspora who trace their lineage to those Armenians who survived and fled Western Armenia is now several million. Since the breakup of the Soviet Union, approximately one million Armenians have joined the diaspora largely as a result of difficult economic conditions in Armenia.
Privacy Policy. Skip to main content. The Middle East after the Ottoman Empire. Search for:. The Ottoman Empire. Decline of the Ottoman Empire After a long decline since the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire came to an end in the aftermath of its defeat in World War I when it was dismantled by the Allies after the war ended in Learning Objectives Explain why the Ottoman Empire lost power and prestige.
Key Takeaways Key Points The Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman I in the 14th century and reached its apex under Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century, stretching from the Persian Gulf in the east to Hungary in the northwest and from Egypt in the south to the Caucasus in the north. In the 19th century, the empire faced challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation; it ceased to enter conflicts on its own and began to forge alliances with European countries such as France, the Netherlands, Britain, and Russia.
This marked the beginning of the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. The empire entered WWI as an ally of Germany, and its defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by the Allied Powers in the aftermath of the war resulted in its partitioning and the loss of its Middle Eastern territories, which were divided between the United Kingdom and France.
This era was characterized by various attempts to modernize the Ottoman Empire and secure its territorial integrity against nationalist movements from within and aggressive powers from outside of the state. Most of their backgrounds have been lost to the mists of time, but it seems most were European women, so Serbs, Greeks, Ukrainians. Similarly, any of the legendary Janissaries [an elite fighting corps within the army], including the famous architect Mimar Sinan who started his career as a Janissary, were all Christian children who had been brought into this elite fighting force and then converted to Islam.
In the west, he has become known as Suleiman the Magnificent. In the east, he is remembered as Suleiman the Lawgiver. However, here is a full list of his titles and they are fascinating:. The next few titles are unexpectedly Roman. The ejection of the Jews and Muslims from Spain was still fresh in the minds of those living in the first half of the 16th century.
His empire stretched for hundreds, if not thousands, of miles in all directions. As Napoleon was now committed to the siege, Ottoman forces were able to gather a relief force and march to the aid of the city. By comparison, Abdullah Pasha al-Azm, the governor of Damascus, had gathered an army of over 30, The Ottoman forces were made up of Sipahis, Mamelukes and other brave but outdated warrior classes. It was then that Napoleon arrived with about 2, men, not enough to match the numbers in the Ottoman army but enough to distract them by sending a few hundred men to attack and loot the Ottoman camp.
He ordered a general retreat, at which point the two French forces charged the disengaging Ottomans, and the orderly Ottoman retreat turned into a messy rout. Total losses of Ottoman soldiers were around 6, killed and another captured, versus two dead French soldiers.
An army of around 4, had fought an army of over 30, and not only won, but sustained just two fatalities. It was a devastating humiliation for the sultan Selim III, and a spectacular triumph that allowed Napoleon to continue his siege of Acre although he would not take the port and this would mark the furthest extent of his conquests in the Middle East.
From the middle to the end of the empire, when it was on its long slow decline to collapse, the empire faced three main rival powers that crop up again and again in Ottoman history: to the east, the Persian Safavids; to the north, the tsars of Russia; and to the west, the Habsburgs. Similarly, as the tsars of Russia began to spread their power south towards the Crimean Peninsula and the Black Sea, the Ottomans began to lose ground and were forced to fight multiple wars with the tsars.
The most famous of these in the west is the Crimean War , when France and Britain joined sides with the Ottomans to prop up the failing state against the rising star of Russian power.
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